Political fragmentation and cross-cultural exchange characterize the period from 1000 to 1400 in the eastern Mediterranean. Contributing to the complex sociopolitical scene are armies from the East, such as the Seljuqs, Mongols, and Timurids, and Crusader forces from the West—including eight major Crusades and many smaller expeditions—along with the remnants of Byzantine rule. The establishment of the Mamluk sultanate in the eastern Mediterranean following the defeat of the Mongols in the thirteenth century helps bring stability to the region.